Lockee, B., Moore, D., & Burton, J. (2004). Foundations of programmed instruction. In AECT handook

Skinner's 1954 paper “The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching” list four problems with the structure of classrooms at the time:

1. reliance on aversive control
2. reinforcement was poor and/or delayed (e.g., homework).
3. 'lack of a skillful program' to direct child toward desired, complex behaviors (requires individualization)
4. reinforcement (or use of contingencies) was underutilized.

Description of Teaching Machines

• Both a process and a product
• Highly structured (uses units called frames).
• Frequent opportunities for questions and feedback
• Self paced, learner can proceed independently
• Use of objectives
• Use of formative evaluation (specifically utilizing criterion referenced tests)

(variety of sources used here - Bullock, 1978) thought to be most helpful.

1. Specify content and obj
2. Learner analysis (entry level skills among others)
3. Behavior analysis (precursor to task analysis)
4. Choice of linear or branching paradigm. Also of note is Norman Chowder's Intrinsic programming “the intrinsic model is designed, through interaction with the student, to present him with adaptive, tutorial instruction basedon his previous responses”.
5. Sequencing of content
6. Frame composition
7. Evaluation and revision (one of the more challenging aspects when accepting someone else's material - esp. commercial products).

Authors provide numerous caveat's here. Majority of the research was conducted in the 60's and is generally of poor quality. These studies died out in the early 70's as it appeared that PI was simply a 'fad.'

Machines described included Presseys, Military SMT's, Skinner, and Crowder.

Cite research on comparison to conventional, attitudes, overt vs. covert, error rate, age or level variables, and ind vs group. Most inconclusive. Notable exception with attitudes which proved to be generally positive.

“While trendsin educaitonal philosophy and learning theory have shifted away from behavioral sciences to more cognitive and constructivits approaches, these authors content that PI has never really ceased to exist. Its influence is apparent in the ID processes that continue to serve as standards in our field (, Dick & Carey, Gagne, Briggs and Wager, . . . ” p. 563 (paraphrased).

“Though current trens in learning theory reflect less behavioral approaches to instruciton (Driscoll, 2002), factors such as high-stakes testing in K-12 environments could promote a resurgence of aspects of PI, at least in terms of identivcaiton of measurable learning outcomes, masterlearning techniques, and the evaluation of instruction.”

References of note Skinner, 1954 Skinner, 1986. Programmed Instruction Revisited. Crowder, N. A. (1960). Automatic tutorin by intrinsic programming. In A. A. Lumsdaine & R. Glaser, (Eds.), Teaching machines and programmed learning (pp. 286-298). Washington, DC: National Education Association.